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The current transformers, 41, 42 and 43, are each connected to a resistor such as resistors R1A, R1B and R1C respectively. A suitable current transformer is described in patent application Ser. However it should be understood that any one of many alternative types of current transformers could be utilized to provide a current signal that is representative of a current flowing through the primary of the current transformer. The present invention, as illustrated in FIG. As can be seen from FIG.

As described above, current transformer 41 is connected to resistor R1A. Resistor R1A provides a constant low value of burden for the current transformer 41 so that it can remain in a linear region of its performance profile. If the current transformer 41 would be permitted to saturate its core, it would cease to become linear. Therefore, it is important for the proper operation of the present invention that resistor R1A be of a fairly low value, such as approximately 10 ohms.

Since the resistance in the secondary winding of the transformer 41 would normally be expected to exhibit a resistance of approximately 15 ohms, this magnitude of resistance of resistor R1A would permit current to flow freely in the current transformer winding of current transformer Resistor R4A is used in this preferred embodiment of the present invention to minimize the affects of bias currents in the operational amplifier input circuit.

However, it should be understood that, as it relates to the operation of the present invention, resistor R4A could be of an extremely low resistance value and, under certain circumstances, it could be envisioned that the value of resistance R4A could be zero and the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U1A could effectively be connected directly to ground, Resistors R2A and R3A are intended, in a preferred embodiment of the present invention, to be of equal value so that the gain of amplifier U1A is essentially unity.

Under these conditions, operational amplifier U1A is an inverting amplifier for negative portions of the current waveform passing through resistor R1A. During positive portions of the current waveform, passing through resistor R1A, a positive voltage signal exists at the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A. Therefore, the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A senses the positive voltage signals that are representative of the current signal passing through resistor R1A.

Negative portions of this voltage signal are inverted by operational amplifier U1A and positive portions of this voltage signal are sensed through resistors R2A and R3A. For example, if a negative voltage is developed across resistor R1A, the operational amplifier U1A inverts this negative signal that is received at its inverting input and a positive voltage signal would be developed at the cathode of diode D1A and the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A.

The output of operational amplifier U2A would be an equivalent positive voltage because the operational amplifier U2A would operate as a buffer amplifier, or a voltage follower, to provide a high input impedance for operational amplifier U1A. The function of diode D2A is to prevent reverse currents passing from the connection point CP toward the current transformer 41 through resistors R2A and R3A. These reverse currents could typically occur during the positive excursions of the voltage across resistor R1A.

Operational amplifier U2A and diode D2A combine to provide a voltage signal output from diode D2A that is equal to the input signal at the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A. By connecting the cathode of diode D2A to the inverting input of operational amplifier U2A, a negative feedback is provided that reduces the effect of the voltage drop across diode D2A to a value that is infinitesimally small compared to what its value would be if operational amplifier U2A was absent from the circuit.

The voltage drop across diode D2A is compensated for by the gain of operational amplifier U2A so that this output is adjusted automatically to provide for a very low voltage drop across the combination of operational amplifier U2A and diode D2A. Operational amplifier U2A operates to establish a zero voltage difference between its inverting and non-inverting inputs. Negative portions of the voltage signal sensed at resistor R1A are inverted by operational amplifier U1A and diode D1A and provided as an input to the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A.

In actual operation, diode D1A would exhibit approximately one-half of one volt drop across it, but the effect of the voltage drop across diode D1A is minimized by the gain of the operational amplifier U1A. As is well known by those skilled in the art of operational amplifier applications. The voltage drop across diodes D1A and D2A is approximately 0.

This causes a negative voltage to appear at the output of operational amplifier U1A. This reverse biases the diode D1A, effectively opening that portion of the circuit, and operational amplifier U1A becomes ineffective in the circuit. Therefore, during positive portions of the voltage signal across resistor R1A, the voltage is sensed directly by the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A through resistors R2A and R3A.

The voltage drop across resistors R2A and R3A is essentially negligible because of the high impedance provided by the buffer amplifier, such as operational amplifier U2A, which is significantly greater than the resistive values of resistors R2A and R3A. For example, in a typical application of the present invention, the impedance of the buffer amplifier U2A would be greater than one megohms and the resistance of resistors R2A and R3A would be approximately 10, ohms.

Therefore, very little voltage is developed across resistors R2A and R3A and their effect on the voltage signal is significantly minimized. The components connected in association with current transformers 42 and 43 are essentially identical to those described above in association with current transformer As shown in FIG. Therefore, if a load resistor RL is connected between the connection point CP and ground, a voltage potential measured between points P1 and P2 would be indicative of the highest of the three voltages sensed across resistors R1A, R1B and R1C and would be representative of the highest of the currents flowing through the secondary windings of current transformers 41, 42 and The three portions of the present invention shown in FIG.

For purposes of this discussion, it will be assumed that the current through the secondary of current transformer 41 is higher than those currents flowing through the secondaries of current transformer 42 and 43 and, furthermore, that the voltage across resistor R1A under these circumstances is 1 volt.

The 1 volt signal that is output from operational amplifier U2A and diode D2A would appear at connection point CP and at the inverting input of operational amplifier U2B since the inverting input of operational amplifier U2B is connected directly to connection point CP.

Therefore, the output of operational amplifier U2B would tend to be negative and since operational amplifier U2B is provided with a negative feedback circuit, diode D2B would be reverse biased and no closed path would be provided for this feedback to be effective. Therefore, operational amplifier U2B would operate in a non-linear manner and its output would be expected to go to the full negative supply value of approximately volts.

This presents no significant problem because of the fact that, due to its reverse biasing, diode D2B effectively disconnects the components associated with current transformer 42 from connection point CP. In summary, the highest of the voltage signals being output by the operational amplifiers U2A, U2B and U2C, effectively disconnects the other two circuits from connection point CP.

This condition would exist as long as the connected circuit has the highest voltage value being output by the buffer amplifiers. Of course, it should be understood that when another one of the current transformers achieves a current whose absolute value is greater than the current transformer presently connected in signal communication with connection point CP, conditions would change automatically and the current transformer with the highest instantaneous secondary current would control the circuit illustrated in FIG.

Each of the other two operational amplifiers would be driven to its maximum negative value of approximately volts and be effectively disconnected from the connection point CP by its associated diode e. To further explain the operation of the present invention illustrated in FIG. The waveform in FIG. Using the portion of the circuit illustrated in FIG. As can be seen, the waveform 51 has both positive and negative portions. The positive portions of waveform 51 are illustrated in FIG. These positive portions 53 of waveform 51 would be sensed at the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A through resistors R2A and R3A.

As described above, the impedance of operational amplifier U2A is extremely high relative to the resistance of the resistors R2A and R3A and, therefore, the current passing through resistors R2A and R3A is so small that the voltage sensed at the non-inverting input of operational amplifier U2A is essentially the same as that positive portion 53 of waveform 51 that exists at resistor R1A.

As discussed above, operational amplifier U1A operates as an inverting amplifier for negative portions of the voltage signal across resistor R1A. In FIG. Since the current signals passing through the secondaries of current transformers 41, 42 and 43 are alternating from positive to negative values, their respective voltage values across resistors R1A, R1B and R1C will also vary from positive to negative values.

With this in mind, it can be assumed that the voltage at the connection point CP will vary in accordance with the instantaneous maximum absolute value of the three secondary currents. The time-based curve of FIG. This situation exists between times T1 and T2. Then, beginning at time T2, the voltage waveform 62 that is output from diode D2B surpasses the instantaneous magnitude of waveform 61 and becomes the maximum of the three outputs.

It must be understood that waveforms 61, 62 and 63 are portions of the rectified waveforms that are sensed at the non-inverting inputs of operational amplifiers U2A, U2B and U2C. At time T2, waveform 61 is falling and waveform 62, although achieving a smaller peak value than waveform 61, surpasses the instantaneous magnitude of waveform At time T2, waveform 63 is still less than waveform 62 even though it is beginning to rise. As can be seen, waveform 62, which is associated with diode D2B, is the highest of the three waveforms until time T3 when waveform 63, which is associated with diode D2C, surpasses it.

Therefore, as shown in FIG. Under these conditions, the three waveforms represented in FIG. Therefore, it is likely that each of the waveforms would achieve an instantaneous value at some point during its cycle that is higher than the other two waveforms. The solid line illustrated in FIG.

Therefore, the actual output of the operational amplifiers U2A, U2B and U2C are slightly higher than the voltage magnitude at the cathodes of their associated diodes or at connection point CP. Referring to FIGS. The composite waveform illustrated by the solid line in FIG. The dashed line 67 shown in FIG. The voltage magnitude difference between the dashed lines 67 and the solid line that comprises waveforms 61, 62 and 63 in FIG. The difference in voltage magnitude between the solid line in FIG.

As described above, this negative feed-back characteristic is achieved by connecting the inverting inputs of the buffer amplifiers to the connection point CP. As described above, waveform 61 is the maximum instantaneous value of the three waveforms from time period T1 to time period T2, time period 4 to time period 5, time period 7 to time period 8 and time period 10 to time period When waveform 61 ceases to be the maximum instantaneous value of the three waveforms, at time period T2, the magnitude of the signal at the output of its buffer amplifier and diode e.

The waveform illustrated in FIG. When this occurs, diode D2A is reverse biased and essentially disconnects operational amplifier U2A from connection point CP. This causes operational amplifier U2A to output a negative voltage signal representative of its maximum negative value, such as volts. For illustrative purposes, dashed line 69 is also shown in FIG. The difference in voltage magnitude between waveform 61 and waveform 69 is equal to the voltage drop across diode D2A.

Referring again to FIG. This voltage signal at the connection point CP enables the connection point CP to be connected to ground, through a load resistor RL, where it can be measured between points P1 and P2 to arrive at a signal level that is representative of the highest current in a three-phase system. Anm gets paid once you are satisfied with the work. As a result, his project descriptions are lively. The power amplifiers are classified based on their mode of operation that is the portion of the input cycle during which the collector The circuit was designed with gain control happening at the input of the circuit.

Each circuit below is presented as a "definition-by-example" and includes step-by-step instructions with formulas enabling you to adapt the Headphone Amplifier Circuit — This is a simple circuit which uses only 3 transistors, that can be used to drive your headphone. The amplifier circuit has designed for driving ultrasound signal.

The following block diagram shows the amplification stages. Currently, ManTech is seeking a motivated, career and customer-oriented Circuit Logistic Project Coordinator at our South Burlington, VT office, or on a remote basis but must reside in one of the following states: Maryland, Washington D.

This cable tv amplifier circuit is a rf The circuit was designed with gain control happening at the input of the circuit. Tools for recording high-speed brain dynamics; Share this article. The project also shows you how to test an amplifier for performance using a multi meter and oscilloscope. Radio Amplifiers Circuits 15 Browse The circuit was designed with gain control happening at the input of the circuit.

Its goal is to enable the manager or sponsor of a project to make informed decisions about the future of the. This process of amplification is utilized in radio signals, long-distance communication, etc A transistor must be efficient in terms of gain, linearity.

In this project, we will make an audio amplifier. High output efficiency, negligible hum, low harmonic distortion, clarity of the output sound, compact modular size, and low cost are some of the key features of this fully solid-state integrated Hi-Fi stereo amplifier. If you want to operate at higher voltage max. A transistor amplifier is used to amplify the low input audio signals. This PCB looks just like a round TFT breakout but has permanently affixed M3 standoffs that act as mechanical and electrical connections.

Obtain the desired result. Mosfet Amplifier Construction of a Guitar Amplifier. Posting id: The op-amp IC is a DC-coupled, high gain differential amplifier with external negative feedback. Tax included. By - Oct 7, This article explains the theory and the construction of the circuit of a 10W practice guitar amplifier. Add to cart. The IC has low crossover distortion, low quiescent current and is available in 16 pin power DIP package. Moreover, the total quiescent current of the IC is as low as 5mA to 7mA.

Friday, September 30 Latest Projects. So, in this project, we are going to design a simple audio amplifier circuit using a C NPN Power transistor. It comprises a group of industry, government, and academic leaders devoted to helping the US automotive industry become more competitive and profitable. Connect a 10K-ohm resistor between the base and collector pin of the first transistor. Here the amplifier circuit is designed using push pull class AB configuration. As a guide it provides a broad outline of activities and a suggested SwenzjeGames Project 1 is the developer of this game.

Fund the project upfront. The amp works fine, uses the Maryland Toroid tube amp transformer. There are few special features which lead us to design this stereo amplifier circuit using this particular IC. For each of the three major Below you can see the block diagram of a basic PWM Class-D amplifier, just like the one that we are building. My Expertise:- Software Tool: Projects.

Check the operation of the circuit by adjusting the Knob. Connect the output of the circuit to the main amplifier and bring the good signal to the input of the circuit. The op-amp produces the gain required and the For the volume circuit, we'll need a low-frequency class AB power amplifier, the TDA Extend and expand your Circuit Playground projects with a bolt on TFT Gizmo that lets you add a lovely color display in a sturdy and reliable fashion. But here the audio amplifier has a preamplifier.

Power Amplification Stages. This makes it ideal for battery operated gadgets. We can use volume control and treble control in this circuit. Control solid TL op amp used in the output stage has the power transistor 2N 60 volts 30 amps. The following circuit diagram discusses the W power amplifier circuit. Shipping calculated at checkout. PNP transistor is not used for output in this amp design. This cable tv amplifier circuit is a rf Great collection of radio amplifier circuits and projects: cb radio frequency amplifier, antenna amplifier and more.

This basically implemented using a summing amplifier, and there is one for each channel. The first stage is a An amplifier circuit diagram consists of a signal pick-up transducer, followed by a small signal amplifier s , a large signal amplifier, and an output transducer.

Connect all the component as shown in circuit diagram. The amplifier works in a way more or less similar to an op-amp. By clicking accept or using this site, you consent to those cookies. A unique circuit system which can be act as a ultrasound transmission system and suitable for repelling specific pest. For more than 50 years, LC was considered to be homogeneous in structure and function such that NE would be released uniformly and act simultaneously on the cells and circuits that Circuits Sent In By Viewers.

I found this circuit a charge amplifier with an OP Amp here the piezo cell is represented as the current source with the capacitor and the resistor on the left. It makes the sound quality is very The project published here is of Audio Distribution Amplifier Circuit using LM is shown in figure 1, which is basically a low cost, low noise amplifier designed using one of the most popular operational amplifier LM The project is split into four sections so that it can be checked for errors as the design progresses.

By Syed Saad Hasan. The Complete circuit of the tri-amplifier project Although many devices. The LM IC comprises four independent, low power, high-gain, frequency-compensated operational amplifiers. The Antenna Amplifiers Circuits and Projects 12 Browse through a total of 12 antenna amplifiers electronic circuits and diagrams. An electronic project is basically a circuit project built using a handful of passive and active electronic parts by soldering them on a printed circuit broad or PCB.

Line drivers are commonly used within digital systems, e. Practical Audio Amplifier Circuit Projects builds on the introduction to electronic circuits provided in Singmin's innovative and successful first book, Beginning Electronics Through Projects. To test its ruggedness, the unit is designed without any ancillary equipment like volume Construction of a Guitar Amplifier.

This complementary Darligton pair transistors can handle 5A current and V voltage. This page contains projects that members of the Fun With Tubes Email List, and other viewers of this site, are working on.

It's free to sign up and bid on jobs. The weak audio signal from the computer goes from a stereo plug into the amplifier circuit. The 3 transistors are arranged in triple Darlington mode, where T1, T2, T3 are connected as an extremely high gain Darlington triplet. For the purpose of amplification, the focus This can be very useful and versatile power supply project for any beginner for testing and powering other electronic projects.

Many electronic projects require the use of a small audio amplifier. This is a Watts amplifier circuit diagram pdf. The circuit of the audio amplifier consists of a transistor a device to apply the input signals and a speaker at the output. Sponsored Sponsored Sponsored. The amplifier can be run even from a 3V Mercury button cell. Only one uA op-amp and four transistors are required for the working of this circuit.

The IC consumes very little power, and it can be 1 Preamplifier using two Transistors. Output power of 1. Speakers require high power at low impedance. Amplification is done in two stages, each of which is centered on Bipolar Junction Transistors.

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It has no connection with any of the internal or external circuits. A typical IC is constructed with a circuit that is included with 11 resistors and 20 transistors. All these transistors and resistors are assimilated and connected as a single monolithic chip. These Q3 and Q4 operate as common-base amplifiers. This type of configuration isolates the inputs that have a connection with Q3 and Q4 and so eliminates likely signal feedback which might take place. The voltage fluctuations that take place at the operational amplifier inputs might show an impact on the internal circuit current flow and also impacts the effective functional range of any transistor that is in the circuit.

So, to eliminate this from taking place, there has been the implementation of two current mirrors. The transistor pairs Q8, Q9 and Q12, Q13 are connected in a way to form mirror circuits. As Q8 and Q12 transistors are the regulating transistors, they set the voltage level at the EB junction for their corresponding pair of the transistor.

This voltage level can be accurately regulated to some decimals of millivolts and this accuracy permits only necessary current flow to the circuit. One mirror circuit which is developed by Q8 and Q9 is fed to the input circuit whereas the other mirror circuit developed by Q12 and Q13 is fed to the output circuit.

Also, the other mirror circuit which is the third one formed by Q10 and Q11 functions as an increased impedance connection between the -ve supply and input. This connection offers a reference level of voltage showing no loading effect on the input circuit. The transistor Q6 together with 4. This is achieved to eliminate any kind of signal variations at the output amplifier section. Op-Amp Integrator and Differentiator The below sections explains the experimental procedure of integrator and differentiator using IC op amp theory.

To form an integrator circuit and to know the output, the circuit connection to be done as explained in the below steps: At the input section, apply a symmetrical sine wave having a frequency of 1 kHz and amplitude of 2V which is peak to peak voltage. This connection allows observing the generated waveforms. Plot the observed waveforms on a graph along with the similar values observed on CRO. Then observe both the practical and theoretical values.

This type of connection allows IC op amp to be used as an integrator circuit. The differentiator circuit using op amp is shown below. To form a differentiator circuit and to know the output, the circuit connection to be done as explained in the below steps: IC Differentiator At the input section, apply a symmetrical triangular wave having a frequency of 1 KHz and amplitude of 2V which is peak to peak voltage. The open loop configuration of IC is in inverting and non-inverting modes.

When the voltage is given to the pin-2 then we can get the output from the pin When the voltage is given to the pin3 then we can get the output from the pin The circuit diagram of IC op amp is given below. In the following circuit, IC operational amplifier is used as a comparator. Even if we used it as a comparator the IC still observes the weak signals so that they can be identified more simply.

IC Pin Configuration Specifications of IC Op-Amp The below specifications clearly explain the operating functionality and behavior of IC Power supply: For the functionality of this operational amplifier, it requires a minimum voltage of 5V and it can handle up to 18V. Input Impedance: It has a range of about 2 megaohms Output Impedance: It has a range of about 75 ohms Slew Rate: This is also the crucial attribute in choosing the operational amplifier for a high range of frequencies.

The SR gets varied with the variation in voltage gain and this is generally termed as unity gain. The slew rate value for the op-amp is always steady. SO, when the slope necessities of the output values are more than the slew rate, then there happens distortion. For an IC operational amplifier, the slew rate is 0. Because of this, this IC is not used for increased frequency ranges like in comparators, filters, and oscillators.

Together with the steady-state feedback, the op-amp includes the entire response of the practical circuit. The feedback section where a steady value is achieved before receiving the output value is termed as the transient response. Once it reaches this value, the steady value stays at that point and so because this is called a steady level. This steady phase is not based on time. The attributes of this transient response consist of overshoot percentage and rise time. It has a high input impedance and a low output impedance, which makes it an excellent amplifier.

The op-amp has a wide frequency response. This means the frequency of the signal being amplified has little effect on the operation of the amplifier as compared to other amplifiers. It has a high gain capability and can be adjusted for zero offset voltage. Having a zero offset voltage means it has features that allow the amplifier output to be adjusted to absolute zero voltage.

The op-amp can be corrected easily to compensate for temperature changes. The op-amp is a general purpose amplifier. It can be used to regulate power supplies , made into a simple signal generator, used as an oscillator, used as a radio or TV receiver, used as a timer, or used as a filter.

It is also used extensively for instrumentation metering current or voltage. Originally, the term operational amplifier applied to any complete circuit designed from many discrete components that resulted in a high gain, high-performance dc amplifier. It was only natural that an amplifier used so extensively be designed as a single chip. There are over twenty transistors in an op-amp chip along with all the resistors needed for bias.

Using the op-amp IC saves time and money and also makes the repair and troubleshooting much simpler. Op-amps need only a few exterior components such as resistors and capacitors to create an amplifier or one of many other devices. Operation Amplifier Pin Configuration Pin Layout Figure 1 is an illustration of the pin configuration of a typical general purpose op-amp.

Like most IC chips, the op-amp does not have pin identification markings on the chip. The pins are identified by using specifications sheets and a reference point. The reference point for our chip is the notch at the top.

The pins are numbered in a counterclockwise direction, starting at the notch. Figure 1. Pin identification of a typical dual-in-line package dip operational amplifier. The power for the op-amp is provided through pins 4 and 7. Pin 4 is either connected to ground or a negative voltage value from 3 to 18 volts.

Pin 7 is connected to the positive voltage of the power supply. The output of the amplifier is pin 6. There are two input pins, pin 2 and pin 3. Pin 2 is the inverting input. Any signal applied to pin 2 generates a signal of opposite polarity at the output. The noninverting input, pin 3, generates an output at pin 6 of the same polarity.

See Figure 2. Take special note that both inputs, pin 2 and pin 3, generate an output at pin 6, but they generate opposite polarities. Figure 2. The polarity of the output signal of the op-amp is determined by the input signal location.

The inverting input generates an output signal of opposite polarity to the input signal. The noninverting input produces a signal of matching polarity at the output. The op-amp is so sensitive to the input voltage that at times the output will generate a signal even when there is no intentional input. To avoid this condition for certain applications, offset null pins, pin 1 and pin 5 are provided.

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Due to its characteristics, features these are determined by an exterior component and also have a slight dependence on temperature coefficients otherwise manufacturing differences in the IC itself. Nowadays, operational amplifiers are the most commonly used integrated circuits.

The applications of these ICs include an immense array of industrial, scientific, and consumer devices. The cost of the several typical op-amps is low in reasonable production volume; but some hybrid, integrated op-amps with different performance conditions may cost over dollars. Operational amplifiers may be packed as apparatuses, or used as fundamentals of more compound integrated circuits.

The operational amplifier is one kind of differential amplifier. Various kinds of differential amplifiers include the instrumentation amplifier, the isolation amplifier, the negative feedback amplifier, and the fully differential amplifier. But, it is general-purpose. You need to know basic information about this.

The IC operational amplifier looks like a small chip. The representation of IC op-amp is given below which comprises eight pins. The triangular form in the IC signifies an op-amp integrated circuit. The current version of the chip is denoted by the famous IC op amp. The main function of this IC is to do mathematical operations in various circuits. This operational amplifier can offer a high range of voltage gain and this can be made to function at various voltage levels and this functionality allows the device to implement in various integrators, summating type of amplifiers, and others.

Even it holds the characteristics of protecting the device at the time of short circuit and has internal frequency compensating circuit networks. The basic representation of this operational amplifier is as below: Pin Diagram The pin configuration of the IC operational amplifier is shown below. The op amp pin diagram and the functionality of each pin are explained clearly in the below section.

The power which is required for the IC to function is received from both these pins. The voltage level between these pins can be in the range of 5 — 18V. The output voltage that is received at this pin is based on the feedback approach that is used and the voltage level at the input pins. In the same way, when the voltage value at pin 6 is low, this corresponds that output voltage is similar to the -ve supply voltage.

Input Pins: Pin 2 and Pin 3 These are the input pins for the operational amplifier. Pin 3 is considered as the inverting input while pin 3 is considered as the non-inverting input pin. Offset Null Pins: Pin 1 and Pin 5 As before discussed, this operational amplifier has an increased level of voltage gain. In order to overcome this, an offset value of the voltage to be applied at pin 1 and pin 5, and this generally accomplished by a potentiometer.

It has no connection with any of the internal or external circuits. A typical IC is constructed with a circuit that is included with 11 resistors and 20 transistors. All these transistors and resistors are assimilated and connected as a single monolithic chip. These Q3 and Q4 operate as common-base amplifiers. This type of configuration isolates the inputs that have a connection with Q3 and Q4 and so eliminates likely signal feedback which might take place.

The voltage fluctuations that take place at the operational amplifier inputs might show an impact on the internal circuit current flow and also impacts the effective functional range of any transistor that is in the circuit. So, to eliminate this from taking place, there has been the implementation of two current mirrors. The transistor pairs Q8, Q9 and Q12, Q13 are connected in a way to form mirror circuits.

As Q8 and Q12 transistors are the regulating transistors, they set the voltage level at the EB junction for their corresponding pair of the transistor. This voltage level can be accurately regulated to some decimals of millivolts and this accuracy permits only necessary current flow to the circuit. One mirror circuit which is developed by Q8 and Q9 is fed to the input circuit whereas the other mirror circuit developed by Q12 and Q13 is fed to the output circuit. Also, the other mirror circuit which is the third one formed by Q10 and Q11 functions as an increased impedance connection between the -ve supply and input.

This connection offers a reference level of voltage showing no loading effect on the input circuit. The transistor Q6 together with 4. This is achieved to eliminate any kind of signal variations at the output amplifier section. And, the -input is negative the output will go minus. Do you understand? Here are some examples: Did you fully understand the answers to the 4 examples on the previous? If not, we will explain how the output changes according to the voltage on the inputs.

Op-amp swing output voltage The op-amp uses a split power supply. It will swing 18V. This 18V swing occurs when the input voltage changes uV. In this uV region, the op-amp is working in its linear range. We can use the op-amp in its linear range on a power supply circuit. And, s very small change in the input will produce a large change in the output of the op-amp. But the output can be positive or negative, according to the voltage on the input. You must be able to determine the sign of the output.

When the is used as a comparator. It is proportional to the difference between the two inputs. Look at these examples show this: All outputs are positives. It is proportional to the difference between the input lines. Do you get ideas? If the inverting input - has a higher voltage: the output will be negative. How to use it with a single power supply The op-amp will also operate from a single power supply: We will get the output waveform: Note: At zero difference between inputs, the output will be 0.

The input voltage differential operating range is about 0. For use in various applications, In different ways. The Clipping Amplifier Circuit When an amplifier is overdrive output waveform of voltage and current distortion. It is a basic clipping amplifier. If the input is sine wave to distorted square wave type waveform.

Today we come to see this circuit again. Reserve will valuable in applying work other circuits. Get in the future, we fix R1 and R2.